Go On! Prosecuting Sexual & Gender-based Violence at the Special Court for Sierra Leone

SCSL Dec 13 ASP SideEventGo On! makes note of interesting conferences, lectures, and similar events.

Interested IntLawGrrls readers in New York are invited to this event, taking place on the margins of the International Criminal Court 16th Assembly of States Parties:

“Prosecuting Sexual and Gender-Based Violence at the Special Court for Sierra Leone”, on December 13 from 1:15pm-2:30pm at the Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations.

Ms. Sharanjeet Parmar, former SCSL prosecutor, will discuss her experience in prosecuting sexual and gender-based crimes, and I will present conclusions from a UN Women-funded study of best practices and lessons learned in the SCSL’s prosecution of these crimes.

Co-sponsored by the Permanent Missions of Canada and Sierra Leone to the United Nations, UN Women, Western University and the Canadian Partnership for International Justice.

Light lunch will be served.

Please RSVP here: https://goo.gl/forms/rlVMWmz5kP0mgwy93

ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium: Day 5

The General Debate concluded today – Day 5 of the International Criminal Court Assembly of States Parties (ASP) in New York. The last of the Member States made statements, including Nigeria and Tunisia. Nigeria urged dissatisfied states not to withdraw and, rather, to recall the reasons underlying their states’ original support for the Court.

Observer states Ukraine, China, Iran and the United States also made statements. The United States rejected any ICC exercise of jurisdiction over US personnel absent the government’s consent or a UN Security Council referral, including in any potential investigation into US troop conduct in Afghanistan. China implicitly critiqued the Court, for example in statements such as “It is necessary for the Court to strike a balance between its two core values, namely, peace and justice. Justice should not be pursued at the expense of peace and reconciliation” in conflict zones.

The General Debate ended with statements by civil society groups. The Convenor of the

HRW at Genral Debate

HRW Speech at General Debate

Coalition for an ICC, Bill Pace, urged states to be proactive rather than reactive. Among the many NGOs to speak was Human Rights Watch, which pointed out that “in this Assembly, there has been too little attention to addressing non- cooperation and we urge strengthened efforts in this area next year.” Human Rights Watch also expressed concern about the budget discussions: “Human Rights Watch is deeply concerned that the current budgeting process for the ICC will continue to result in inadequate funding for the effective implementation of the Court’s mandate.”

Day 5 also included consideration of the ICC’s 2018 programme budget request. Registrar Herman von Hebel presented the 2018 request (147.9 million Euro, up 4.4% from 2017) based on the needs of the various ICC organs, and the Chair of the ASP’s Committee on Budget and Finance presented the CBF’s recommendations on the budget request (2% growth over 2017). States also participated in informal consultations on the ASP’s omnibus resolution, titled Strengthening the ICC and the ASP.

Annika Weikinnis contributes a blog post today on side-events concerning the Prosecutor’s preliminary examinations and the aftermath of the Burundi withdrawal. Annika  is currently enrolled in the Graduate Studies in Law program at the University of Ottawa (Canada) and conducts research in the field of international criminal law, inAnnika particular the involvement of transnational corporations in international crimes. She holds a Master’s degree in Politics and International Relations from the University of Aberdeen and a Master’s degree in Law and Politics of International Security from the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Attending the ASP16 is an invaluable experience for her, academically and professionally, and she hopes to gain further insights in the organisation, processes and issues concerning the ICC. Heartfelt welcome, Annika, to the IntLawGrrls ICC ASP Symposium!

 

ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium: Day 4

The General Debate continued on Day 4 of the ICC Assembly of States Parties (ASP). Many countries made statements, including France and Switzerland. France condemned the mistreatment of migrants in Libya as conduct that could amount to crimes against humanity. Switzerland responded: “We find it inconsistent to ask the Court to investigate crimes against migrants in one room of this building [i.e. the UN Security Council], only to propose cuts to the budget of that very same Court in another room [i.e. at the ASP]”.

Other speakers today included Canada, which, like many states, expressed disappointment with Burundi’s withdrawal from the ICC, and Botswana, which called on the permanent members of the Security Council to refrain from the use of the veto in the referral of atrocity situations to the ICC.

The General Debate was followed by a closed door meeting on the activation of the crime of aggression.

Among the many side-events taking place on Day 4 was the global launch of the Gender Justice Legacy Wall, a project designed by the Women’s Initiatives for Gender Justice to celebrate 15 years since the establishment of the ICC and the approach of the 20thGender Justice Wall anniversary of the adoption of the Rome Statute. The Legacy Wall honours and celebrates groups and individuals who have contributed to the field of international gender justice as practitioners, advocates, judges, prosecutors, grassroots and other organisations, survivors, witnesses (by number for anonymity), academics, diplomats and others. The Legacy Wall is intended to be a living legacy with more names to be added at future significant anniversaries of the Rome Statute, as the gender justice field continues to evolve, as others are recognised and as future generations join and contribute to this endeavour. The launch was co-sponsored by the Women’s Initiatives, New Zealand, Switzerland, and the UK.

Silviana Cocan joins the IntLawGrrls ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium with a post on another side-event which took place on Day 4 – in this case, on a new proposed treaty on Mutual Legal Assistance concerning genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes.

Silviana is a Ph.D student in international law at Laval University (Canada) under joint Silviana Cocan - photosupervision at Bordeaux University (France). She is currently writing a thesis on the dialogue between jurisdictions and quasi-jurisdictions protecting human rights. More specifically, she is studying judicial dialogue in direct relation with the prohibition of torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment and punishment. Her research fields are public international law, human rights law, international humanitarian law and international criminal law. Silviana is also participating as a student at Laval’s University’s International Criminal and Humanitarian Law Clinic.

Heartfelt welcome to the IntLawGrrls ICC ASP Symposium, Silviana!

ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium: Day 3

Day 3 of the International Criminal Court Assembly of States Parties (ASP) was a day of transition from the judicial elections, which dominated the previous two days, into the General Debate.

ICC ASP16

ICC ASP16, photo credit: ICC

The day began with the election of Mr. Rosario Salvatore Aitala (Italy) as the sixth and final ICC judge elected at this ASP session. As well, an election was held to fill the four seats allocated to the Group of Latin American and Caribbean States (GRULAC) on the ASP Bureau. Bureau members are usually elected by acclamation after consensus is reached within the regional groups, but GRULAC could not reach consensus. Thus, voting took place today, electing Argentina, Ecuador, Mexico, and Colombia to 3 year terms on the Bureau.

The General Debate also began today, during which states presented their positions on various ICC-related issues. Of note was South Africa’s statement affirming its intention to withdraw from the ICC and announcing that it would repeal its Rome Statute implementing legislation. This statement stood in contrast to Gambia’s indication that it planned to stay within the ICC due to the current government’s staunch support for international justice.

There were many side-events held today at the ASP, including one on the ICC Prosecutor’s work on the Libya situation. This side event is described in detail in an IntLawGrrls post today by Nicole Tuczynski. Nicole is an LL.M (Common Law) candidate at the University of Ottawa in Canada. Additionally, she also enjoys working in the field of politics on Parliament Hill in Ottawa,Nicole a position she has held for the past two years and in which she continues to stay active. Her research interests predominately revolve around the intersection of law and politics, International Criminal Law and Canadian Health Law and Policy. Her specific research focus is currently on the ICC and one of the specific aims of the institution – to put an end to impunity for perpetrators who have committed genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity. Given this, she is intrigued by the rules outlined in Rome Statute, and, further, how those rules get defined and/or determined in practice. Nicole also holds a M.A. in Political Science, including a designation from the Collaborative Graduate Program in Transitional Justice and Post-Conflict Reconstruction, and a B.A. Honours Specialization Degree in Political Science, all from Western University. Her previous Master’s Major Research Paper also focused on international justice by way of studying the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and assessing its mandate.

Heartfelt welcome, Nicole, to IntLawGrrls’ ICC Assembly of States Parties symposium!

 

ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium: Day 2

Voting filled the second day of the 16th International Criminal Court (ICC) Assembly of States Parties in New York. The voting procedures for the ICC are intentionally complex – see the explanation by Stefan Barriga over at EJILTalk! – and are designed to result in a Court with a fair representation of female and male judges, as well as a collection of judges with the depth of experience necessary to try serious international crimes.

On the first day of the Assembly, two judges were elected during two rounds of voting: Ms. Tomoko Akane (Japan) and Ms. Luz del Carmen Ibañez del Carmen (Peru). Today saw three more judges elected, from Benin, Uganda and Canada.

Before the third round of voting began, Mr. Dragomir Vukoje (Bosnia) withdrew his candidacy. While no candidates emerged with the required 2/3 majority of states present and voting in the third round of voting, the fourth round resulted in the election of Ms. Reine Alapini-Gansou (Benin) and Ms. Solomy Balungi Bossa (Uganda).

The fifth round was inconclusive. At the end of that round, the candidates from Lesotho and Uruguay withdrew. Canadian candidate Ms. Kimberly Post successful garnered the required 2/3 majority in the sixth round and was elected.

KimProst

Kimberly Prost Photo Credit: Thomas Fricke

The candidate from Croatia withdrew prior to the seventh round, which then involved only the candidate from Italy, Mr. Rosario Salvatore Aitala, and the candidate from Ghana, Ms. Henrietta Joy Abena Nyarko Mensa-Bonsu. That round was inconclusive. The eighth, and likely final, round of voting will take place tomorrow morning.

After the elections, ICC member states participated in an informal consultation on the activation of the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime of aggression.

With this post, I am pleased to welcome Catherine Savard, who is attending the Assembly. She is contributing a post today on the role of the nongovernmental Coalition for an ICC within the Assembly.Catherine

Catherine is currently completing her Bachelor in Law at Laval University (Canada). She is the assistant coordinator of the Canadian Partnership for International Justice and is a member of the Partnership delegation for the 16th Assembly of the ICC. Her research interests are international criminal and humanitarian law and human rights. She recently completed a year of schooling at Åbo Akademi University’s Institute for Human Rights in Finland. At Laval University, she is involved in the International Criminal and Humanitarian Law Clinic and has undertaken research concerning the crime of aggression and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon.

Heartfelt welcome to Catherine!

ICC Assembly of States Parties Symposium 2017

I am pleased to introduce a new IntLawGrrls symposium on the International Criminal Court (ICC) Assembly of States Parties. The 16th session of the Assembly runs from December 4 to 14 in New York.

ICC ASP 16 Opening CPIJ

Photo Credit: CPIJ

It will be a very interesting and active Assembly this year. The Assembly will discuss activation of the Court’s exercise of jurisdiction over the crime of aggression, including negotiation on jurisdictional questions. Six new judges will be elected. The Assembly will make its recommendation on the election of the Registrar, as the term of the current Registrar expires in April 2018. Discussions will occur around the fact that 2018 marks the ICC’s 20th anniversary. The IntLawGrrls symposium will discuss these – and many other – issues over the next ten days.

For an excellent overview of the issues being considered by the Assembly, please see the Backgrounder prepared by the Coalition for an ICC.

The first post in the symposium is by Jenny Poon.

JennyPoon

Photo Credit: University of Western Ontario

Jenny is a Ph.D. Candidate at the Faculty of Law of the University of Western Ontario (Canada) and a qualified Barrister & Solicitor in Ontario. Jenny’s research focuses on examining the principle of non-refoulement as a norm in international and European law. Her thesis includes a comparative analysis of the United Kingdom and Germany.

A heartfelt welcome to Jenny to this IntLawGrrls symposium!

Thanks are extended to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for funding Jenny’s attendance at the Assembly through the Canadian Partnership for International Justice.

Go On! Prosecuting Sexual Violence in Conflict

IntLawGrrls readers in the Toronto area are warmly invited to attend an upcoming panel discussion on ‘Prosecuting Sexual Violence in Conflict: Lessons from International Criminal Tribunals’. It will take place on March 7, 2017, from 4:00-6:00 pm at the Munk School of Global Affairs, University of Toronto, The Vivian and David Campbell Conference Facility (1 Devonshire Place, Toronto).

Over the past two decades, international criminal tribunals have adopted groundbreaking judgments convicting individuals for rape, sexual slavery and forced marriage committed during armed conflict and genocide in the former Yugoslavia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and elsewhere. At the same time, these tribunals have had some very public setbacks, with sexual violence cases dismissed, charges acquitted, and investigations failed. What lessons can be learned from these experiences that can inform future cases at the International Criminal Court and other tribunals?prosecuting-sexual-violence-in-conflict-poster-march-7-2017

This session will feature a keynote address by Michelle Jarvis, Deputy to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), on her recent book (co-edited with ICTY Prosecutor Serge Brammertz), Prosecuting Conflict-Related Sexual Violence at the ICTY. Responses will be provided by Linda Bianchi (formerly of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, now Canadian Department of Justice) and Valerie Oosterveld (University of Western Ontario Faculty of Law, Canada) on whether the ICTY’s lessons can be applied on a global scale.

This event is co-organized by the University of Western Ontario Faculty of Law and the Munk School of Global Affairs, with support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

The event is free but attendees should register.

ICC Assembly Finishes for Another Year

icc-asp-photo

Photo Credit: ICC-CPI

The annual Assembly of States Parties (ASP) to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) has finished, having taken place from November 16-24 in The Hague, Netherlands. IntLawGrrls had a team of bloggers at the ASP, whose work in contributing a series of nine posts has now wrapped up.

These posts began with a discussion of the statements by States Parties at the opening of the ASP, in which many states expressed regret regarding the announced withdrawals of South Africa, Burundi and Gambia from the Rome Statute, and of support for the ICC and the anti-impunity project of international criminal law. This post noted that the feared mass withdrawal of African states did not materialize: rather, a number of African states – including Ghana, Nigeria, Botswana and the Democratic Republic of the Congo – reiterated their support for the work of the ICC.

The posts that followed ranged from a discussion of the reasons behind Burundi’s announced withdrawal, the Prosecutor’s preliminary examinations into crimes in Afghanistan and Guinea, the reality of the work of the ICC’s Trust Fund for Victims, the Prosecutor’s Policy on Children and complementary efforts to eliminate the use of child soldiers, an interview with Richard Dicker of Human Rights Watch (a key nongovernmental figure on international criminal law issues for over two decades), and women on the ICC’s bench.

This last issue will be one – among many – to watch between now and the opening of the next ASP. In 2017, the ASP will elect six new judges. These judges will replace judges whose terms are expiring, five of whom are female (including the current ICC President, Silvia Fernández de Gurmendi). With the ICC’s bench currently the most balanced between male and female judges of any international criminal tribunal, the stakes will be high in 2017 in order to maintain this momentum toward gender balance. Another issue to watch will be the ICC’s annual programme budget, which was approved at this ASP at just under €144.6 million (€141.6 million plus Host State Loan), representing a slight increase over the 2016 programme budget of €137.39 million.

intlawgrrls-bloggers-at-asp-with-prosecutor

ICC Prosecutor and Deputy Prosecutor with  IntLawGrrls bloggers and other members of the Canadian NGO team

Our IntLawGrrls bloggers had several memorable experiences at the ASP, including:

  • Attending a session on the protection of human rights defenders and witnessing Gladwell Otieno, director of the Africa Centre for Open Governance, being publicly threatened at the ASP by a senior Kenyan government official for critiquing the Kenyan government’s intimidation of civil society organisations:
  • Meeting with representatives of the ICC’s Office of the Prosecutor and the Canadian section of Avocats sans frontières/Lawyers Without Borders to discuss international criminal justice issues in Colombia. More generally, observing diplomacy through the interactions of different actors: civil society, state representatives and the organs of the Court:
  • Attending an event titled “Child Soldiers: Prevention and Accountability” with LGen (Ret’d) Roméo Dallaire, former Commander of the UN Mission to Rwanda during the 1994 genocide: and
  • Discovering the disconnect between the rhetoric of states around victims, and the relative lack of economic and other support by the same states for the Trust Fund for Victims.

We hope that IntLawGrrls readers have enjoyed this symposium on the ICC ASP. Join us again next year for more ASP analysis!

The participation of the IntLawGrrls bloggers to the 15th Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was supported by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada through the project “Strengthening Justice for International Crimes: A Canadian Partnership.”

Symposium: ICC Assembly of States Parties

I am pleased to introduce a new IntLawGrrls symposium on the International Criminal Court (ICC) Assembly of States Parties. The Assembly opens today in The Hague and will run until November 24.

icc-asp-14

2015 ICC ASP, Credit ICC-CPI

The Assembly will open with country statements, and will then consider issues such as the ICC’s annual budget for 2017 and reports from the various organs of the Court. It will also hold a panel discussion on “effective cooperation and accountability for Rome Statute crimes: the contribution of national, regional and intergovernmental initiatives” and an Open Bureau meeting titled: “Relationship between Africa and the International Criminal Court: Resuming dialogue to win the fight against impunity”. The latter is particularly salient, given recent announcements by South Africa, Burundi and Gambia that they are withdrawing from the Rome Statute. There are a number of interesting side-events meant to prompt discussion on key challenges facing the Court.

During the Assembly, IntLawGrrls is excited to have four bloggers – Rouguiatou Baldé, Jessica Dufresne, Claire Magnoux and Kirsten Stefanik – reporting daily from The Hague on key developments. Rouguiatou, Jessica, Claire and Kirsten are all doctoral students based at Canadian universities. In true Canadian fashion, their IntLawGrrls posts will be both in English and in French.

rouguiatou-p_Rouguiatou Baldé est criminologue, économiste, et chimiste. Elle effectue actuellement un doctorat en Criminologie à l’Université de Montréal , sous la supervision de Joe-Anne Wemmers. Ses recherches portent particulièrement sur la Victimologie, la Justice Internationale pénale, et la justice transitionnelle.Elle est également titulaire d’une Maîtrise en Justice Pénale, d’une Maîtrise en Économie, option Finance et d’une Maîtrise en Chimie, option Contrôle des Qualités des produits naturels et industriels.

jessica-dufresneJessica Dufresne est candidate au doctorat en droit à la Faculté de droit de l’Université d’Ottawa. Finissante de l’École du Barreau du Québec, elle est également titulaire d’une licence en droit de l’Université Paris-1 Panthéon Sorbonne, d’un baccalauréat en droit de l’Université Laval et d’une maîtrise en droit international de l’Université du Québec à Montréal au cours de laquelle elle a rédigé un mémoire portant sur la protection du droit à l’alimentation en Inde. C’est dans le cadre de ce parcours à la maîtrise qu’elle a développé un intérêt prononcé pour la sécurité alimentaire et qu’elle a décidé de s’impliquer dans la lutte pour une meilleure justice alimentaire au Canada, en mettant notamment sur pied le premier frigo communautaire au pays (Le Fridge de Rosemont la Petite-Patrie, à Montréal). Ses recherches doctorales, encadrées par le Professeur David Robitaille, expert reconnu sur les droits économiques et sociaux et le droit constitutionnel au Canada, portent sur l’effectivité globale du droit à l’alimentation dans le contexte juridique Canadien. Elle en propose une étude holistique qui porte à la fois sur l’interprétation constitutionnelle de ce droit et sur l’incontournable réforme des politiques publiques, poussées par les revendications citoyennes en matière de justice alimentaire.

claire-magnouxClaire Magnoux est actuellement candidate au doctorat à l’Université Laval sous la supervision de Fannie Lafontaine. Son sujet de thèse porte sur les politiques de poursuites du Procureur de la Cour pénale internationale. Après un master en droit comparé et politique internationale (Université de Clermont-Ferrand), elle a passé un an en Bosnie-Herzégovine (Brcko) dans une ONG dont le mandat est la réconciliation entre les communautés. Dans le cadre de son volontariat, elle a coordonné des projets culturels impliquant enfants, adolescents et jeunes adultes.  Elle a également effectué un stage au sein du Groupe de recherche et d’information sur la paix et la sécurité (GRIP) à Bruxelles, dans la section Afrique. Elle est co-coordinatrice de la Chaire de recherche du Canada sur la justice internationale pénale et les droits fondamentaux.

kirsten-stefanikKirsten Stefanik is a fourth year PhD Candidate in the Faculty of Law at the University of Western Ontario. She currently holds a Doctoral Fellowship from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Kirsten received her BA from the University of British Columbia and her LLM from Western Law. Her current research focuses on non-state actor involvement in non-international conflicts. This study explores different approaches used by various international and non-governmental organizations to engage armed groups for the purposes of educating and promoting compliance with the law applicable to the conflicts to which they are parties. It draws on international legal theories, as well as criminology and psychology theories to provide a more complete understanding of the motivations of non-state actors in conflict. This study also seeks the views of former members of armed groups with case studies and research interviews conducted in Sierra Leone, Rwanda, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Through their voices, this research seeks a greater and more nuanced understanding of: the familiarity of these armed groups with international humanitarian law; opinions they have regarding their interactions with international or non-governmental organizations on international humanitarian law issues; and their views on how this law affected their or other members of their group’s actions during conflict.

A heartfelt welcome to Rouguiatou, Jessica, Claire and Kirsten! Thanks are extended to the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada for funding their travel to The Hague for this purpose through the ‘Strengthening Justice Through International Crimes: A Canadian Partnership‘ grant.

Female Refugees Fleeing Conflict

Women and girls fleeing conflict face serious obstacles to presenting successful claims for status under the 1951 Refugee Convention. This is the conclusion of a study I prepared for the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for a roundtable in Cape Town, South Africa on “International Protection of Persons Fleeing Armed Conflict and Other Situations of Violence”.  The Summary Conclusions of this roundtable are meant to inform the drafting of future guidelines to clarify the interpretation and application of international and regional refugee law instruments to persons fleeing armed conflict and other situations of violence across international borders.

credit: UNHCR/Courbet

credit: UNHCR/Courbet

 My study examined cases arising in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States between 2004-2012 in which women or girls sought refugee status after fleeing conflict. These cases involve claimants fleeing from Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Burundi, Chad, Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Guinea, Iraq, Palestine, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Serbia, Somalia, Sri Lanka and Uganda. These cases revealed that women and girls fleeing conflict tend to face four general barriers to their refugee claims.

The first barrier arises in the consideration of conflict-related rape and other forms of sexual violence as forms of persecution. The Refugee Convention requires that refugee claimants possess a well-founded fear of a form of harm that qualifies as persecution. Unfortunately, some refugee adjudicators do not adequately consider the environment surrounding rape in conflict, inaccurately characterizing this rape as a matter of personal sexual gratification or as a private act (and therefore not persecutory), rather than as a method of dominating or terrorizing civilians. Additionally, gender-related violence may be incorrectly classified as part of the indiscriminate consequences of conflict – and therefore not targeted enough at the claimant to amount to past persecution or to present a risk for future persecution – even though a deeper examination may reveal that the victims’ gender informed the method of attack.

Under the Refugee Convention, only those who can demonstrate a “well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion” can qualify as refugees. A second set of obstacles is found in the consideration of the Refugee Convention grounds: claims by women and girls fleeing conflict tend to be funnelled into “membership of a particular social group”, even though other categories may be more applicable because of the nature of the conflict. This results in a tendency for refugee decision-makers to create artificial sub-groups of women in order to evaluate whether claimants fit within those groups, leading to unecessarily narrow reasoning.  

A third set of obstacles arises within the consideration of state protection. The cases revealed examples in which this analysis was not done in a gender-sensitive manner with a full appreciation of the nature of the conflict. This was especially so when adjudicators were considering the “end” of the conflict: a cease-fire or peace agreement does not necessarily mean the end of persecution of women and girls.

A fourth set of obstacles is found in procedural and evidentiary matters. For example, claimants and refugee decision-makers are hampered by lack of access to gender-sensitive country of origin information demonstrating the situation of women and girls before, during and following the conflict.

These barriers have been recorded before with respect to “peacetime” claims by women and girls, but the difficulties seem to be compounded or especially prevalent in conflict-related cases. The specific issue of barriers faced by female refugee claimants fleeing conflict has received little focused attention, therefore this study is necessarily preliminary in nature. Please feel free to contact me at vooster@uwo.ca if you have any relevant cases or studies to share on female refugee claimants who have fled conflict.